Paul of Samosata: Historical Sources and His Significance as a Representative of Early Jewish-Christian Monotheism
Paul of Samosata remains one of the most historically visible and theologically revealing figures of the third century. His career as bishop of Antioch (c. 260–268), his deposition by a council of seventy bishops, and the extensive accounts preserved by ancient church historians provide a richly documented picture of a Christian leader who represented an older, Jewish-Christian, strictly monotheistic interpretation of the gospel. Although none of Paul’s own writings survive, the surviving records—synodal letters, imperial judgments, and testimonies from African and eastern church historians—allow a coherent reconstruction of his theology, influence, and the controversies surrounding him. Far from being a marginal figure, Paul stands at the crossroads between early Jewish-Christian thought and the emerging doctrinal developments that would later dominate Christian history.
This document combines all the historical references from the ancient sources with the interpretive framework that sees Paul as preserving early Jewish-Christian belief: a belief in one indivisible Deity and in Jesus as a real human being who was exalted through moral excellence, obedience, and unity of purpose with the Higher Power.
I. Historical Records and Sources Preserving Paul’s Life and Thought
1. Eusebius of Caesarea (Palestinian historian)
The earliest and most significant historical source for Paul of Samosata is Ecclesiastical History by Eusebius of Caesarea. Eusebius, a historian from Caesarea Maritima in Palestine, preserves:
The encyclical letter written by the 70 bishops who deposed Paul in A.D. 269.
Accounts of Paul’s conduct, teaching, and political influence.
Descriptions of the Synods of Antioch, held between 264 and 269, which repeatedly examined his doctrine.
The report of Emperor Aurelian’s arbitration in 272, which ultimately removed Paul from the bishop’s residence.
Eusebius’ testimony is foundational because it is early, detailed, and includes direct documentary evidence—most importantly, the synodal letter written during Paul’s lifetime.
2. The Synodal Letter of A.D. 269 (Preserved by Eusebius)
This letter is the most direct contemporary source concerning Paul. It includes:
The formal deposition of Paul.
Accusations that he rejected any notion of Jesus’ pre-existence.
Complaints about Paul’s alleged secular pride, use of honorific titles, and association with women who sang hymns in his praise.
Statements about his monopoly over church property and finances.
Although this letter is hostile, it constitutes firsthand contemporary testimony regarding Paul’s theology and the conflict it generated.
3. Imperial Ruling of Aurelian (A.D. 272)
Eusebius and later historians—Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret—record that after Zenobia’s defeat, Emperor Aurelian adjudicated the dispute between Paul and the bishops. Aurelian ruled that the congregation should belong to those “in communion with the bishops of Italy and Rome,” resulting in Paul’s removal.
This judgment is historically significant because:
It represents the first recorded imperial involvement in a Christian ecclesiastical dispute.
The emperor acted out of legal and administrative pragmatism, not doctrinal evaluation, treating the matter as a question of rightful property possession and recognized communion.
It confirms independently that Paul continued to hold the episcopal residence after his deposition due to political backing.
4. African Church Father Athanasius of Alexandria
Athanasius, a leading figure of the Egyptian church in the fourth century, repeatedly references Paul as a prominent representative of those who denied the pre-existence of Christ and affirmed the absolute unity of the Deity. His works, including De Synodis and Against the Arians, treat Paul as a well-known exemplar of Monarchian belief.
5. Hilary of Poitiers
Hilary describes Paul’s doctrine in detail, noting his insistence that:
The Logos is not a second person but the Deity’s own wisdom and expression.
Jesus was a man in whom the Logos dwelt and acted.
The exaltation of Christ was based on moral excellence.
Unity between Jesus and the Deity was one of purpose, will, and grace, not shared essence.
Hilary confirms the basic adoptionistic character of Paul’s theology.
6. Later Greek Historians
Socrates Scholasticus, Sozomen, and Theodoret—writing in the fifth century—recount:
Paul’s use of civic titles.
His association with Queen Zenobia.
His doctrinal positions.
His deposition and removal.
The endurance of his followers, the Paulianists.
Their accounts depend largely on Eusebius but preserve the continued memory of the controversy.
7. Jerome
Jerome’s De Viris Illustribus and other writings mention Paul as a chief representative of those who rejected the idea of Christ’s pre-existence. Jerome notes that Paul’s followers persisted for generations, requiring continued ecclesiastical response.
8. The Council of Nicaea (Canon 19)
Canon 19 directly addresses Paul’s followers, the Paulianists, requiring:
Re-baptism for entry into the Church.
Examination of Paulianist clergy before re-ordination.
Recognition that Paulianist “deaconesses” held no ecclesiastical office.
This canon confirms the historical endurance of Paul’s movement and shows that his teachings remained influential long after his deposition.
II. Paul of Samosata: Life, Positions, and Historical Setting
Paul of Samosata, born around A.D. 200 in the city of Samosata, rose from humble beginnings to become bishop of Antioch in 260—one of the most prestigious sees of the early Christian world. His simultaneous holding of a Roman civic office, commonly identified as procurator ducenarius, demonstrates his ability to move between religious and political spheres with unusual competence.
Antioch had long been a center of Jewish Christianity. It was here that the earliest followers of Jesus—many of whom had been synagogue-attending Jews—first spread their message to Gentiles. Paul’s theology reflects this heritage: a strong emphasis on strict monotheism, denial of any plurality within the Deity, and a celebration of Jesus as the chosen human being raised to divine favor through obedience.
As bishop, Paul exercised considerable authority. His eloquence, administrative skill, and political alliances—especially his relationship with Queen Zenobia of Palmyra—made him one of the most influential figures of the eastern Christian communities during his time.
III. Paul’s Theology: A Continuation of Early Jewish-Christian Belief
1. Absolute Unity of the Deity
Paul championed a rigorous form of Monarchianism: the Deity is one, indivisible, and not split into multiple persons or hypostases. He rejected any teaching suggesting a pre-existent Christ distinct from the Deity. Instead, the Logos was the Deity’s expressive wisdom, not a separate being.
2. Jesus as a True Human Being
Paul taught that Jesus:
Was born a human like all other humans.
Possessed a natural, corporeal constitution.
Progressed morally through obedience and discipline.
Became united with the divine Logos through moral achievement and grace.
Attained the titles “Christ,” “Savior,” and “Redeemer” as rewards for his faithfulness.
This is consistent with early Jewish-Christian interpretations of Jesus as the righteous servant exalted by the Higher Power.
3. Adoptionistic Christology
Paul’s doctrine fits squarely within adoptionism:
Jesus begins as a man, not as a pre-existent divine being.
His unity with the Deity is one of will, purpose, and moral harmony.
Exaltation occurs because of obedience, not inherent status.
Fragments of Paul’s Discourses to Sabinus—quoted by later writers—preserve phrases such as:
Jesus “kept himself free from sin.”
He “perfected himself.”
He attained unity with the Deity “through moral excellence.”
IV. The Opposition and the Synods of Antioch
Opposition to Paul arose from doctrinal disagreement more than personal misconduct, though hostile sources accuse him of pride, accepting money for clerical services, and surrounding himself with female singers. The Synods of Antioch in 264, 268, and 269 were convened to examine his teachings. Each synod grappled with his insistence that Jesus was not pre-existent and that the Deity was a single person.
The final synod in 269—consisting of seventy bishops—deposed Paul and appointed Domnus as his successor. Yet Paul refused to relinquish the bishop’s residence, relying on Queen Zenobia’s patronage.
V. Removal by Imperial Judgment
After Zenobia’s defeat by Aurelian in 272, the emperor ruled that control of the church building should go to those in communion with the bishops of Italy and Rome. This ruling was administrative and legal in character, not a theological endorsement of either party, and it effectively displaced Paul from the episcopal residence.
VI. Paul’s Legacy and Influence
Paul’s influence lived on through:
The Paulianists addressed in Canon 19 of Nicaea.
Continued debates over adoptionistic and monarchian interpretations of Jesus.
The broader Antiochene intellectual environment in which figures such as Lucian of Antioch later taught—though Lucian was not a Paulianist and was subsequently reconciled with the wider church.
Although condemned, Paul preserved a stream of early Jewish-Christian monotheism that emphasized the true humanity of Jesus and rejected speculative theological developments.
Conclusion
Paul of Samosata stands as a fully documented, historically visible representative of early Jewish-Christian belief. His life and controversy reveal the tensions within third-century Christianity as new theological systems eclipsed the older proclamation of Jesus as the righteous man exalted by the Deity. The extensive historical records—synodal letters, imperial rulings, African and eastern church historians, and ecumenical canons—allow us to see Paul not merely as a controversial bishop, but as a preserver of an ancient monotheistic tradition rooted in the earliest generations of the Jesus movement.
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